Reference - How best to define the term “     Reference  ” is a subject of much contention; many books and journal      Reference  icles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term “     Reference  ” (Davies, 1991 and Carroll, 2000). Theodor Adorno claimed in 1969 “It is self-evident that nothing concerning      Reference   is self-evident any more.” (Danto, 2003). Indeed, it is not even clear anymore who has the right to define      Reference  .      Reference  ists, philosophers, anthropologists, and psychologists all use the notion of      Reference   in their respective fields, and give it operational definitions that are not very similar to each others.

How best to define the term “     Reference  ” is a subject of much contention; many books and journal      Reference  icles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term “     Reference  ” (Davies, 1991 and Carroll, 2000). Theodor Adorno claimed in 1969 “It is self-evident that nothing concerning      Reference   is self-evident any more.” (Danto, 2003). Indeed, it is not even clear anymore who has the right to define      Reference  .      Reference  ists, philosophers, anthropologists, and psychologists all use the notion of      Reference   in their respective fields, and give it operational definitions that are not very similar to each others.

Nonetheless we can make some progress towards defining      Reference   in its most everyday senses. The first broadest sense of “     Reference  ” is the one that has stayed closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", and also from an Indo-European root meaning "arrangement" or "to arrange". In this sense,      Reference   is whatever is described as having undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include      Reference  ifact,      Reference  ificial,      Reference  ifice,      Reference  illery, medical     Reference , and military     Reference . However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.


The Café Terrace on the Place du Forum, Arles, at Night, September 1888.The second, more narrow, more recent sense of the word “     Reference  ” is roughly as an abbreviation for creative      Reference   or “fine      Reference  .” Here we mean that skill is being used to express the      Reference  ist’s creativity, or to engage the audience’s aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the “finer” things. Often, if the skill is being used in a lowbrow or practical way, Reference will consider it a craft instead of      Reference  . Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it will be considered design instead of      Reference  . On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied      Reference  . Some thinkers have argued that the difference between fine      Reference   and applied      Reference   has more to do with value judgments made about the      Reference   than any clear definitional difference (Novitz, 1992). However, even fine      Reference   often has goals beyond just pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of      Reference   may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, spiritually-, or philosophically-motivated      Reference  , to create a sense of beauty (see “aesthetics”), to explore the nature of perception, for pleasure, or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

     Reference   can describe several kinds of things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience’s experiencing of the creative skill. The creative     Reference  (“     Reference  ”’ as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (“    Reference ”) which output      Reference  works (“     Reference  ” as objects) that is compelled by a personal drive (“     Reference  ” as activity) and echoes or reflects a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (“     Reference  ” as experience).

Theories of      Reference 
Aesthetics, or the philosophy of      Reference  , often engages in disputes about the best way to define      Reference  . General pictures of the nature of      Reference   are called “theories of      Reference  .”


Fountain by Marcel Duchamp. 1917Many have argued that it is a mistake to even try to define      Reference   or beauty, that they have no essence, and so can have no definition. Often, it is said that      Reference   is a cluster of related concepts rather than a single concept. Examples of this approach include Morris Weitz and Berys Gaut.

Another approach is to say that “     Reference  ” is basically a sociological category, that whatever      Reference   schools and museums, and      Reference  ists get away with is considered      Reference   regardless of formal definitions. This "institutional definition of      Reference  " has been championed by George Dickie. Most Reference did not consider the depiction of a Brillo Box or a store-bought urinal to be      Reference   until Andy Warhol and Marcel Duchamp (respectively) placed them in the context of      Reference   (i.e., the      Reference   gallery), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define      Reference  . The placement of an object in an      Reference  istic context is a common characteristic of conceptual      Reference  , prevalent since the 1960s; notably, the Stuckist      Reference   movement criticizes this tendency of recent      Reference  .

Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which a work of      Reference   is created or viewed that makes it,      Reference  , not any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it is by the institutions of the      Reference   world after its introduction to society at large. For John Dewey, for instance, if the writer intended a piece to be a poem, it is one whether other poets acknowledge it or not. Whereas if exactly the same set of word was written by a journalist, intending them as shorthand notes to help him write a longer      Reference  icle latter, these would not be a poem. Leo Tolstoy, on the other hand, claims that what makes something      Reference   or not is how it is experienced by its audience, not by the intention of its creator. Functionalists, like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether or not a piece counts as      Reference   depends on what function it plays in a p     Reference  icular context, the same Greek vase may play a non-     Reference  istic function in one context (carrying wine), and an      Reference  istic function in another context (helping us to appreciate the beauty of the human figure).


     Reference   and class

Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe     Reference   is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others. In this context,      Reference   is seen as a high-status activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase      Reference  , and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. The palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of      Reference  , amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such      Reference   is the preserve of the rich, in one viewpoint.

Before the 13th century in Europe,      Reference  isans were considered to belong to a lower caste, since they were essentially manual labourers. After Europe was re-exposed to classical culture during the Renaissance, p     Reference  icularly in the nation-states of what is now Italy (Florence, Siena),      Reference  ists gained an association with high status. However, arrangements of "fine" and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status. This is seen in the 20th and 21st century by the commissioning or purchasing of      Reference   by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices.

Utility of      Reference 
Often one of the defining characteristics of fine      Reference   as opposed to applied      Reference  , is the absence of any clear usefulness or utilitarian value. But this requirement is sometimes criticized as being a class prejudice against labor and utility. Opponents of the view that      Reference   cannot be useful, argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function, and the objects claimed to be "non-utilitarian" actually have the function of attempting to mystify and codify flawed social hierarchies. It is also sometimes argued that even seemingly non-useful      Reference   is not useless, but rather that its use is the effect it has on the psyche of the creator or viewer.

     Reference   is also used by      Reference   therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as      Reference   therapy. The end product is not the principal goal in this case; rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of      Reference  work may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.

[[Image:Graffiti_Panorama_rome.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Grafiti, a kind of      Reference   considered by some to be vandalism, as it is mostly known from being painted illicitly on on buildings, buses, trains, bridges and suchlike. The "use" of      Reference   from the      Reference  ist’s standpoint could be as a means of expression. It allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers.

In a social context, it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale. In a more negative aspect of this facet,      Reference   is often utilised as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood (in some cases,      Reference  works are appropriated to be used in this manner, without the creator's initial intention).

From a more anthropological perspective,     Reference  is often a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a (somewhat) universal language. The interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer’s perspective and context, and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of     Reference  demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed, or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of Reference might congregate and mingle.

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